Integration

Validity of Language Assessment

Key Points: This article details the complexities that come with the validation of language tests. To validate a test means to determine whether or not the test can evaluate what the it is suppose to evaluate. That is, is the test measuring what the test maker intended to measure. According to this reading the problem with validating tests is that the measurements for validation need to be reviewed. The current definition of validation is put under the microscope in this article. This article is a call out to test makers to reevaluate the ways in which they validate tests. Criteria to look at when evaluating the validity of a test include: the consequences of the test and comparison of the test to other tests, and the language construct the test is suppose to measure.

My interaction with the reading:

1. Although this article was difficult for me to understand, it did make me consider the unique difficulties of language testing. For example, a language test may actually be testing a learner's ability to take a test. A test may have it's own discourse and demonstrating proficiency in that discourse may not represent proficiency in the target language.
2. In my own experience making tests I found it difficult to illicit a demonstration of a language skill. I had to walk a fine line between giving the answer away by being too specific or make the answer too difficult by being too vague.
3. I have a feeling that the term 'validity' means something in the testing world that I don't fully understand because this is my first time reading about tests. I understand the word but I have a feeling that the word is used to mean something specific in the testing world. Like it is testing jargon.

Fairness and Justice for All

Key Points: As the title suggests, this article is about fairness in testing. We learn how tests can be unfair. For example, tests administered on computer are unfair to students in locations that do not have computers. This article states that relatively little research has been done to determine how to make fair tests and that more research is necessary if test makers are to make fair tests. We learn that fair tests are important to society in that unfair tests affect college admissions and jobs. Tests in the past have been judged to be racist.

My interaction with the reading:

1. I'm a little confused by the use of the term 'construct' as it pertains to testing.
2. I learned a new term, wash back, which describes the phenomenon in which test influence how teachers teach. I think another way to say this, “teaching to the test.” I think wash back is an important issue in education. Especially in Korea.
3. I had never thought of tests as being unfair. I thought as long as every student reachieved the same test than it was a fair test. In this article we learn that this is not true and that making a fair test is not a simple matter.

Writing Assessment

ESL/EFL instructors’ practices for writing assessment: ... - A. Cumming

Key Points: A. Cummings traveled the world to talk to highly experienced EFL teachers and discovered that teachers who teach English for specific purposes and those who teach general purpose English course assess their students differently. The English for specific purposes teachers all shared a common way of assessing students that mostly focused on evaluating what the students produced and determining whether or not it was ready for the real world. However, general purpose teachers did not share a common assessment method. These teachers used a variety of methods and had a variety of criteria for their students with most benchmarks being centered around students as individuals in the process of development.

My Interaction with the Reading:

1. The article does not give a clear definition of the two types of classes and even states that all of the classes discussed lie somewhere along a continuum. Does not this make it difficult for the author and the reader to draw comparisons between the two types of classes?
2. How does the difference between the two types of classes affect my classroom? Am I teaching English for a specific purpose becuase I am preparing students for the college entrance exam?

The Effects of Portfolio Assessment ... - B. Nezakatgoo

Key Points: In this paper we learn about the benefits of using portfolios in a writing class for language learners. A portfolio is a collection of the student's writing that is turned in at the end of the semester. In a non-portfolio writing class completed assignments are no longer relevant to class, but in a portfolio based writing class writing assignments are revisited. Instead of having students write a final paper for their final exam, students can choose a previously written paper from their portfolio to improve upon. The portfolios emphasize process writing.

My Interaction with the Reading:

1. This seems like a great method; however, I'm concerned that some students may not take the method seriously and would simply try to use it as an easy way out of hard work. For example, telling a student to improve a paper may just mean to the student that they are getting away with not having to write.
2. It is necessary to find a balance between new writing and looking back at old writing. Improvement may be accomplished through practice or reflection.
3. I remember keeping portfolios in past classes, but it seemed that the teachers did not make use of portfolios. The portfolios were just a folder that had all my writing assignments in it. I did not have to write a cover letter or choose papers to improve upon.

Courses: From Principles to Practice – CLEMENTS

Key Points: Aware of the benefits to using portfolios for a writing class, this author describes his experience introducing portfolios to a university writing course with high intermediate to advanced English learners. The reader learns of some benefits to portfolios and some of the differences from traditional writing classes that Clements encountered. He also discusses some of the potential drawbacks to portfolio writing classes.

My Interaction with the Reading:

1. This article was an excellent counterpoint to the Nezakatgoo article because it included some the potential problems with portfolios. Nezakatgoo's article was decidedly optimistic, and this article was more piratical. I feel that I can take what I learned from this article into my classroom.
2. This article addressed my concern with the Nezakatgoo's article- that reflection may take time away from writing. Clements had his students write about their papers and their writing process.
3. What role does the students' first language play in portfolios? Could journals and reflections be written in their first language?

A Case Study of Dynamic Assessment ... - Lan & Luo

Key Points: Here we learn about Dynamic Assessment. It is changing your assessments as you go to accommodate the students' needs. It is also giving the student a role in their own assessment though discussions with the teacher. Dynamic Assessment also goes hand in hand with process writing. The teacher evaluates the first draft and then bases writing instruction on the students' needs to help them write a second draft.

My Interaction with the Reading:

1. Dynamic Assessment put a lot of emphasis on the teacher's ability. I feel the better the teacher the better this method will work in the classroom. An overworked, unequipped, or unenthusiastic teacher will have trouble implementing this into their classroom.
2. There is also a heavy reliance on the relationship between the teacher and the students. Students will have to have a lot of trust in their teacher, as well as the ability to discuss their writing with the teacher. This method may make some students uncomfortable.

Theory and Reading: Instruction in EFL settings 23 October - 29 October

Driven to read: Enthusiastic Readers in a Japanese high school’s extensive reading program

by Patrick B. Judge

Key Points: This is ER in an ideal setting: small class sizes, enthusiastic students, and high English proficiency. Through interviews with Japanese students in an international school, readers of this study learn what is going through the minds of highly motivated students in an ER program. Judge talks about the importance of 'flow' which is when educational settings are ideal and students reach a state of mind in which learning becomes enthralling. We also learn the importance of the students' perceived ideal future self and how reading is an important factor in this.

My Interaction With the Article:

1. One could say that this article is an argument for why ER is great for settings with high level students, progressive schools, and small class sizes, but not for more 'typical' settings with large classes and high pressure for exam preparation.
2. Is it safe to say that extensive reading may not work if students do not have a strong desire to read for pleasure in their L1?

Two Types of Input Modification and EFL Reading Comprehension: Simplification Versus Elaboration

by Sun-young Oh

Key Points: Modification of reading materials to make them easier to understand for English learners can be done in two ways, simplification and elaboration. This paper argues that elaboration is better than simplification because it prepares the students for the ultimate goal of reading of authentic texts. Simplification means making sentences less complex by reducing clauses and simplifying vocabulary by replacing less commonly used words with commonly used synonyms. Elaboration adds to reading by inserting into the reading explanations of uncommon words and restating ideas in different words. The experiment, which compared groups six groups of Korean high school girls, high and low reading proficiency groups for each reading type, unmodified, simplified, and elaborated, showed that students performed better with modified texts, but there wasn't a significant difference between the performances of the simplified and elaborated text groups. Oh concludes that elaborated texts are better choice because they expose students to the authentic text without reducing their reading proficiency.

My Interaction With the Article:

1. It seems to me that the elaborated texts are a mixture of the simplified and unmodified texts. Meaning that if you take the simplified texts and inserted them into the unmodified texts you would get the elaborated texts. Could this be why the test results were were similar? Becuase the only difference between the two modified texts was that the elaborated text contained text that the readers did not understand and possibly ignored.
2. The difference that Oh was trying to show between the two modified texts may have been better shown through interviews than multiple choice tests. I would like to know which type the students preferred and how their approaches varied between the types of texts.
3. When I'm selecting texts for my classes will it be clear which type of text it is? Which type of modified text is most common?
4. How do texts that were written specifically for English Learners factor into this study? Is there a clear distinction between these texts and texts that were modified?

Investigating Teacher Attitudes to Extensive Reading Practices in Higher Education: Why isn't Everyone Doing It?

by John Macalister

Key Points: Research has shown that there are benefits to teaching reading through extensive reading in EFL settings. This research seeks to understand why ER is not more prevalent by using phone interviews with university teachers in EFL programs. Specifically, the interviews sought to answer two questions 1) What do such teachers know about extensive reading? 2) How do such teachers incorporate reading into their programs? Macalster explains teacher cognition, which is the effect in which factors such as background knowledge, experiences, training, beliefs, and context, influence what the teacher does in the classroom. The results of the ten question survey showed the that teachers surveyed felt positively toward the concept of extensive reading but they were unsure how to implement it into their classrooms. Some problems cited were, lack of books and institutional support, time constrains, and difficulty with assessment.

My Interaction With the Article:

1. I think we can see from this article that ER requires a lot of institutional support and it seems that only researchers and teachers can see the benefits of extensive reading and not students or school officials. I think it would benefit teachers and researchers to show a connection between ER and improved writing and speaking skills because time spent on ER will cut-in on time focused on those disciplines.
2. I think that we also learn from this survey that teachers rely heavily on their surroundings. This is an approach to reading that relies heavily on resources and time.
3. So far, I haven't read much about the variance in benefits ER may have from age group to age group. Is the an ideal age for ER.

Theory and Reading: Skills and strategies (intensive reading) 16 October - 22 October

Constructivist pedagogy in strategic reading instruction: ... – L. J. Zhang

Key Points: this paper loos at a study conducted in Singapore. The participants were Chinese students about to enter university in Singapore. Before entering they had to take English courses in preparation. These students were learning English for academic purposes which meant reading was of utmost importance as well meta-cognitive skills to ensure success in an English setting. The study compared an experimental group that received instruction in reading strategies and a control group that did not. The strategies included: prediction, scanning to look for main topics, connecting the reading to past experiences, etc. The results of the study showed that the students in the experimental had a positive attitude toward learning reading strategies. The experimental group also showed improved reading skills.

My interaction with the paper:

1. I felt that this researcher made many unfair comments about the Chinese students in the study. He made many generalizations about Chinese education, such as the influence of Confucianism in the classroom.
2. The author was potentially offensive to Chinese educators when he said that perhaps their only previous instruction in reading strategies was the proverb that a good reader reads ten lines at one glance.
3. The author commented that the control group would receive the reading strategy instruction after the experiment was finished. This is something I wondered about control groups. Isn't it unfair for the control group if the result of the study favor the experimental group. Also, what if the research showed in favor of the control group? Would the reading strategy instruction still be offered to the control group?
4. Wouldn't it be more effective to teach reading strategies in the students' L1?
5. Perhaps the students had previously received reading strategy instruction but weren't familiar with the English terms used to describe the strategies.
6. The post-test results showed that the experimental group was successfully taught how to pass a test on reading strategies.

Metacognition and EFL/ESL reading - P. L. Carrell, L. Gajdusek, & T. Wise

Key Points: this paper first looks at many other studies of reading strategy and meta-cognition instruction and then gives a preview of a study the authors are currently conducting. By looking at previous studies the reader learns that there are five main components to meta-cognition learning. They include learning: 1) what is the strategy 2) how to use it 3) why use it 4) when to use 5) determining if its use was effective. The authors points out only one previous study tested all of these steps in meta-cognition instruction and that their new study would test all of these steps.

My interaction with the paper:

1. The paper give a really good overview of meta-cognition and reading strategies that was left out of the previous paper in this week's reading.
2. The focus on reading strategies in the past two weeks has affected the way I've been reading the weekly required reading. And, after reading this particular paper, I've been especially focused on the fifth step of meta-cognition, the evaluation of my own reading strategies.
3. The author mentioned SQ3R and this jogged my memory. I've learned this strategy. This made me wonder which strategies I use when I read. The authors of this article mention that the goal of teaching these reading strategies may be hopes that the students do them automatically, without directing specific attention to the strategies. Is it possible that I'm at this point in meta-cognitive skills?

A closer look at the relationship of cognitive and metacognitive strategy use ... - A. Phakiti

Key Points: This is a study that looked at the use of meta-cognitive and cognitive strategies used in a reading test. The test subjects were 384 Thai students studying English in Thailand. The data was gathered by giving the students a questionnaire after they took the test that used a Likart scale. To triangulate the data, eight students were interviewed. This paper also provides some background information on the significance of tests and studies concerned with testing. It also sheds light on the difficult to define terms of cognition and meta-cognition, especially with regards to strategy 'use' (a strategy consciously chosen by the test taker for a particular problem) and strategy 'traits' (strategies that stay in the background and are used for all tests). The findings of this study state that higher achieving students used more meta-cognitive strategies than lower achieving students.

My interaction with the paper:

1. This paper brought up something that I didn't think of as a subject for research and that is the study of testing. Until now I had thought of testing as a nasty byproduct of education.
2. Why does this paper go into such great detail with regards to its data collection and analysis and the Zhyang paper did not? Were these papers written for different reasons or intended readers?

We Acquire Vocabulary and Spelling by Reading: Additional Evidence for the Input Hypothesis by Stephan Krashen (1994)

Key Points: This paper argues vocabulary and spelling are best learned by independent reading as oppose to learning through teacher instruction or by production. Three hypotheses are compared in this paper: the Input Hypothesis, learning through reading, the Output Hypothesis, learning by writing and speaking, and the Skill Building Hypothesis, learning through rules and drills. This paper looks at studies that prove the Input Hypothesis is the better than the other two.

            Krashen concludes that vocabulary in context is better remembered. Also, vocabulary is complicated and one word can have many meanings depending on contexts. Studying vocabulary lists doesn’t help the student learn vocabulary use. As for spelling, direct instruction has not been proven effective therefore reading is a more efficient way to learn spelling.

My Interaction with the Paper:

1.     On page 442 Krashen compares the preschoolers to all other language students. The preschoolers do not have to produce output but they still learn. This proves that output is not necessary. But comparing preschoolers to all other language learners is a weak argument.

2.     It can be said that SSR does include instruction. The teacher is placing importance on reading and the lesson to the students is that reading is important. The teacher is also emphasizing self-learning.

3.     The Goodman and Goodman study cited by Krashen, in which Goodman and Goodman’s daughter was the test subject, seems like a weak or inappropriate study to cite.

4.     What exactly is spelling instruction? And, is it really taught in middle school? It’s my opinion that spelling is an acquired skill and cannot be taught.

5.     I do not feel that Krashen effectively argues that OH is a better than IH in learning spelling.

6.     On page 448 Krashen says in reference to test subjects who were assigned self-reading, “they also received regular, brief conferences with teachers to discuss their reading and deal with problems.” Is this that much different from traditional reading classes?

7.     On page 552, Krashen states that in his paper that all things said applying to first language learning can apply to second language learning. I disagree because age is an important factor when supplying language input to students. First language learning happens at a young age but second language learning can happen at any age. Krashen uses the term “good reading” as in, good reading is better than vocabulary lists, but good reading for a preschooler may be different than good reading to an adult.

Extensive Reading: Why? and How? by Timothy Bell

Key Points: this paper outlines a program for adult students in a Yemen university, in which Uninterrupted Sustained Silent Reading was used. This program put together a library of graded readers with the student’s interests in mind and had students read on their own without the pressure of tests. This model was based on Krashen’s theory that, “comprehensible input will lead to language acquisition.”

My Interaction with the Paper:

1.     I would have appreciated it if this article supplied a definition of ‘extensive reading.’

2.     On pare 4 Bell suggests written work to go along with the reading, but this may put added pressure on the students which is something that should be avoided. The next suggestion on the page says to avoid tests. I would prefer a multiple-choice test to a writing assignment.

3.      Bell discourages the use of dictionaries because they could make the reading less enjoyable, but couldn’t confusion over meaning take away from enjoyment? And, what do you tell the student who says that they can’t find a book that is easy enough?

4.     Bell mentions that the “modest sacrifices,” necessary to put together this program are worth it. But the sacrifices do not seem that modest: multimedia sources to promote books including video, audio, CD ROM, and film, a card file system to keep track of the books, 141 graded readers selected to motivate the students to read, institutional support.

Extensive Reading in English as a Foreign Language by Beniko Mason and Stephan Krashen

Key Points: the three studies described in this paper prove that extensive reading classes are more effective than traditional reading classes. The studies showed that the extensive reading classes offered increased motivation as well as the ability to work with low-level students. It may be assumed by teachers of low-level students that extensive reading requires a high-level of motivation and reading level, but Mason and Krasen prove otherwise.

My Interaction with the Paper:

1.     This paper offered a good definition of the term extensive reading. I had partially formed my own definition after reading the first two papers, but I had not realized that an important component to extensive reading is giving the students their choice of reading material.

2.     It appeared to me that in all these studies there was a lot of support for the extensive reading class. The teachers seemed to be highly motivated; in fact, I think Mason was a teacher in one of the experiments.  There must have been institutional support. Could the special support for these classes have accounted for some of the success in these classes. Krashen mentioned in one of his paper, We Acquire vocabulary and Spelling by Reading: Additional Evidence for the Input Hypothesis, that one experiment did not yield good results in favor of extensive reading because of a lack of teacher support. However, it seems that supporters of extensive reading down play the teacher’s role in extensive reading. How much of the students’ motivation to read is coming from the teachers in these experiments?

Amos Paran: Reading in EFL: Facts and Fiction

Key Points: This paper describes how the psycholinguistic model L2 reading, examining reading as a series of processes taking place in the brain, that was the basis of early research into L2 reading has maintained a foothold in L2 reading instruction via teacher methodology books despite the fact that modern research no longer upholds these principles.

            Amos dismantles the concept of top-down reading that was previously believed to be the way L1 and L2 readers comprehend texts. Top-down reading means using context, predictions, and assumptions while reading. Bottom-up reading, on the other hand describes the way a reader’s eyes goes from one word to the next in a linear fashion, all the while decoding each word. Amos believes, despite the fact that many researchers believe high-level L2 readers use top-down strategies while reading and that encouraging low-level readers to do the same, the ultimate goal for L2 readers is to become proficient bottom-up readers. Moreover, top-down reading is a way for low-level readers to make-up for their lexical shortcomings.

My interaction with the text:

1.     Grellet is telling me how I am reading but as I pay attention to how I read, it seems that he is incorrect. I am in fact reading word to word in order. I also can hear a voice in my head say the words that I am reading. (Oh no, did that make me sound crazy?) How could the voice be possible if I were skipping around and making hypotheses? p. 26

2.     I can relate to the part about reading in chunks, however those chunks are no more than 2 to three words. p. 26

3.     I was relieved to read this article. It answered many of my questions from the other readings this week as well as reading from previous weeks that talked about local processes and global processes. I hadn’t fully understood what was meant by these concepts and part of my confusion may have been from my yet undiscovered disagreement with them. I side with Paran.

4.     In my classroom, I will encourage my students to read as many level appropriate texts as they can. This is something I believed in before I read this article and I feel that this article supports my belief.

Cindy Brantmeier: Second Language Reading Strategy Research at the Secondary and University Levels: Variation, Disparities and Genralizability

Key Points: By looking at many studies on the use of reading strategies of L2 readers, Brantmeier demonstrates the variety found in studies of this field, such as data gathering methods, testing samples, and testing situations, and how this variety makes making generalizations about the way L2 readers use strategies and the effectiveness of these strategies.  Generalizations would potentially benefit L2 reading instructors as they could teach their students effective strategies for greater comprehension.

            Brantmeier determines, despite the fact that generalizations are not easily made when looking at studies that are so different from each other, that a common conclusion among the studies is that top-down approaches to reading are characteristic of good readers and bottom-up approaches are common among lower achieving readers. And, she recommends that future researchers consider repeating tests with different testing samples and settings then making generalizations based on the results from those test.

My interaction with the paper:

1.     I can sympathize with the researchers who avoid testing the effects of instruction with the use of an experimental group who receives instruction and a control group that does not receive instruction. It means deliberately with holding potentially beneficial instruction from a group of students. p. 7

2.     Are researchers surprised that low-level students use bottom up strategies? How does a reader expected to make assumptions about the broader picture of a text without first understanding some of its parts? Maybe, I don’t have a clear conceptualization of reading strategies in action.

3.     I believe there is a point of lexical competence beginning readers need to reach before any comparisons can be made be between their reading strategies and those of higher level students. Any conclusions that are made through comparisons must take this into account.  I would like to see a study that compared students of high-level L1 reading skill and low-level L2 reading skill to students of high-level L2 reading skills.

4.     The numbers mentioned in the studies we have been reading about are hard to digest because it seems that they don’t represent anything. For example, Brantmeier uses the number, “mean score of males=4.7, mean scale of females=3.7.” on page 10. What do these number represent? 4.7 what?

5.     Could it be possible that the strategies that are revealed in these studies to be used high-level readers are not learned, but acquired through exposure and practice? Even in the case of the studies that look at the effectiveness of instruction with the use of control groups, the experimental groups get exposure and practice along with the instruction so it can not be determined that improvements come solely from the instruction.

Slavin and Cheung, Synthesis of Research on Language of Reading Instruction for English language Learners

Key Points: This paper used the ‘best evidence synthesis’ method to look at many different studies on the benefits of bilingual reading instruction over English immersion instruction. Its purpose was to help policy makers decide the best way for children in America who speak a language other than English in their house to reach a level playing field with native English speaking students. According to this paper, students learning to speak English may be prone to failure if they are asked to simultaneously learn to read in English and that bilingual instruction will help preserve their native language.

            This paper was highly critical of Christine Rossell and Keith Baker’s study analysis that found in favor of immersion. According to Slavin and Cheung, Rossell and Baker’s study included research studies that were flawed and that taking a second look at studies that were adequate actually showed support for bilingual instruction. Slavin and Cheung listed many problems that make previous research difficult to interpret including biased pretests, bias based on the reasons children are put into one program over another, and difference in instructional contexts that make one study difficult to compare to another.

            Slavin and Cheung state in their conclusion that research has shown that bilingual reading instruction is beneficial, however more research is required to learn what model of bilingual instruction is best, transitional, which uses their native language in the beginning and then transitions to English only instruction, or paired instruction in which students receive a native language lesson along side an English reading lesson.

My interaction with the paper:

1.     The research in this field is not convincing, as stated in the paper, a proper study would take four years of more and would be very expensive, so why not write to convince policy makers that policy decisions can not be made on a national level. This paper demonstrated to me that varying percentages of ELL’s per school, student achievement levels and varying qualities of instruction are the most important factors when deciding the appropriate method of instruction.

2.     This study only looked at the test results to determine the effectiveness of instructions methods, however there are many other factors that need consideration. First, how do students feel when they are separated from classmates? What is the financial burden on the schools to provide bilingual classes? And, when should the bilingual lessons take place? Are they replacing other lessons thereby putting the ELL’s at a further disadvantage?

3.     It is strange that the parents of the students in the Sante Fe, New Mexico study on page 268 preferred that their children be put in bilingual classes when two other studies cited in this paper mentioned that the parents preferred the immersion programs.

4.     Spanish is overwhelmingly the native language of most ELL’s in America. This proves that bilingual education is beneficial, but that means that the bilingual classes will be conducted in Spanish. Isn’t this unfair non-Spanish speaking ELL’s?

5.     Is the Morgan study on page 270 saying that studying French actually benefitted the students’ English reading? Maybe this is because high achieving students were attracted to the program.

6.     Some opponents to bilingual education may say that funding special instruction for ELL’s is unfair to native speakers. However, why not offer bilingual instruction to native English speakers? Slavin and Cheung state that bilingualism, “comes with economic and social value in the world today.”

Theory and Writing: Programmatic issues. 25 September - 1 October

Situated Writing Practices in Foreign Language Settings: The Role of ... – C. Rinnert & H. Kobayashi

Key Points: The way EFL students learn to write in their L1 will affect their learning of L2 writing. This paper talks about what L2 writers are going to bring with them in terms of writing experience when they enter the L2 writing teacher's classroom. Defining the term sociocognition describes nicely what is talked about in this paper. Sociocognition states that, “writing is a primarily mental activity by an individual writer within a particular socially mediated context and assumes that writers construct their own writing abilities at least partly based on the previous experiences and preconceptions.:
This study looked at Japanese writing education at all levels, elementary to university, to determine the affects their L1 writing learning has on their L2 writing. The findings were that different levels of L1 learning had different effects on L2 writing. And, that high levels of L2 writing expertise had an effect on L1 writing.

My interaction with the article:

1. I'm not sure what I'm suppose to take away from this study. And, I think that is what this study wants form me. The lesson here is that L2 writing students come from many different backgrounds and L2 writing teachers need to be aware of this. It would be impossible to write a paper that described every type of writer a teacher will encounter, however, closely examining one particular sample may give a teacher an idea of what to expect.
2. One problem I have with this paper is that it uses the term Japanese as though this study will applies to all Japanese writers. It would be tedious to read instead of 'Japanese' “the Japanese students that happened to be a part of this test' every time they are referred to, but I feel to lesson of this paper was that all situations are different and this includes different groups of Japanese students.

Training for Writing or Training for Reality? Challenges .... – C. Pearson Casanave

Key Points: Teaching foreign language (FL) writing in a foreign setting comes with it's own set of difficulties. How do teachers adapt what they have learned during their teacher training to fit their teaching situations abroad? Are universities preparing future teachers for teaching English as a Foreign Language (EFL)?

Currently, most TESOL curriculum are based on research that happens in English dominated universities with proficient English speaking students. In reality, most teachers do find themselves teaching FL writing in that situation. When it comes time to teach in a foreign setting they may find themselves trying to force new, but sometimes inappropriate for certain contexts, educational ideologies they learned in university onto students and educational establishments. Student teachers are asking for tools to help them in specific situations. If they will be teaching in Japan then they want Japan specific methods. However, not all student teachers want the situation specific instruction and would rather learn how to adapt general techniques.

Casanove suggest three changes to the teacher education. 1) Include a course that addresses pedagogical and political realities that teacher will encounter. 2) Traditional teaching methods need to be studied as well, and simply dismissed as outmoded. 3) Research needs to switch from English dominated universities to EFL situations that include elementary, middle, and high schools as well as private, for profit schools. 4)

My interaction with the article:

1. Casanove mentioned that the majority of teaching situations are with students who are of low proficiency and study about three hours a week, however most research does not pertain to this situation. This is something I too have noticed and I wonder why this is.
2. I do not want Korea specific training. I have noticed that within Korea there are many different teaching situations and I would like to learn how to adapt what I know to fit as many demands as possible.
3. What I would like to take from this paper to apply to my classroom is the acceptance of traditional techniques. I think that because there is not much to read about the traditional techniques student teachers ignore them. It is especially important to embrace these techniques when they are the norm in your particular teaching situation. I definitely believe in reading about and trying as many modern techniques as I can, but I also believe that at the base is the system that the local school, students, teachers, and have decided to use.
4. One change Casanove suggested universities include is that, “every program needs rigorous attention to future teachers' knowledge of grammatical and lexical systems of English.” This was one of my motivations for beginning my masters. Is this something I will be learning?
5. What is wrong with test preparation teaching jobs? They are in high demand, but teacher trainers never talk about techniques that could be used to prepare students tests. It seems that most teacher's main concern is helping their students pass tests, but test are looked down upon and rejected by academics.

A Critical Evaluation of Writing Teaching Programmes in Different Foreign Language Settings – M. Reichelt

Key Points: This paper sheds even more light on some of the other teaching situations writing teachers may find themselves as they travel the world in search of EFL students. This paper is separated into research about specific countries:

1. Germany. Interestingly, here task based teaching is at odds with traditional German methods for teaching. Supporters of task based teaching say it provides real situations that prepare and motivate students. Traditionalists claim that it does not provide the full spectrum of writing disciplines. Luckily for wring teachers, Germany has a strong L2 writing tradition.
2. Poland. English arrived here after some political changes half way through the 20^th century. English here is used as a status symbol and provides business and higher education opportunities. A stronger emphasis is put on oral skills than writing skills.
3. The USA. Because English is the global lingua franca, there is little demand for foreign language education. However, the L2 writing that does take place there is strongly supported by a rich tradition of teaching writing through process.
4. China. Similar to Poland, English is a status symbol. A test that all college students have to take after their sophomore year requires students to write an English essay. This is one of many examples of standardized tests forming the L2 writing landscape.
5. Japan: already disused in the C. Rinnert & H. Kobayashi.
6. Spain. Very similar to China and Poland.

My interaction with the article:

1. The section on the USA uses the term 'target language.' What is the difference between target language and foreign language?
2. I did not find this paper very interesting or very helpful. I felt that it over generalized each country and based an entire country on the opinion of a few teachers. I can find two teacher sin Korea that will have the exact opposite descriptions of Korean English education. The test and government policies mentioned in this article are not based on opinion, but those are subject to frequent change and may not be helpful to readers.

Theory and Writing: Genre

Key Points: This week we read about teaching genre writing. Interestingly, right now I'm writing within a specific genre. The way I'm writing this blog post, as in my rhetoric, level of familiarity, vocabulary, omission of bad words, can be considered a genre. Teaching L2 writers about genres may help them become better writers.

There are two main approaches to using genres to teach L2 writers. The first looks at the lingual building blocks that are specific to each genre. The Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) approach and the English for Specific Purposes follow this method. This approach is ideal for the classroom. It comes with a step by step method and makes writing less daunting by providing some framework.

The second approach is to make students aware of the process of genre writing and is inspired by the New Rhetoric School. This school of thought states that genres change according to context and cannot be understood by simply examining example texts and coming up with frameworks to write within. However, being aware of the nature of genre writing will help the L2 writers become better writers.

Ideally, teachers will incorporate both schools of thought when teaching genre writing. The benefits of teaching genre writing can be seen in the studies conducted by S. Yasuda and G. Myskow & K. Gordon. S. Yasuda combined genre writing and task based learning in a study show proof of improvement. The study was based in SFL and showed that students improved in rhetorical awareness. In the Myskow & K. Gordon paper, the reader learns how a lesson in genre that follows the other approach, New Rhetoric School. In this lesson, the students examine one very specific genre of writing, Japanese University application letters, in order to learn the importance of process and context in genre writing.

Mu interaction with the articles:

While reading these articles I tried to remember how I was taught writing. It's a little fuzzy except for one very clear example of genre instruction that has been burned into my soul, and that is the five paragraph essay. There were two Florida administered essay tests that I had to take in middle school that determined my academic future. In my Korean studies, I've introduced myself many times to hypothetical strangers and applied for a hypothetical job by listing my skills and hobbies.

It seemed that genre writing instruction for L2 writing is not much different for L1 writing. So I'm going to apply my history with genre writing to form two personal opinions. First, learning to write the five paragraph essay without learning why and it ruined my writing. I tried to use the five paragraph format for everything I wrote. It never crossed my mind that there was any other format. My second opinion comes from trying to write in Korean. I feel that there is an ideal order for learning genres. Beginners benefit from the strict forms and talking about the context or variations at that point will make writing more difficult.

S. Yasuda's study was half genre writing and half task based. I felt that genre writing got an unfair amount of attention in the reading. The study did a better job selling task based teaching than it did genre writing. I feel the genre study may have been a little restrictive, while the task based instruction was very effective.

Myskow & K. Gordon's example lesson was thorough but inefficient. To site myself as an example, studying one genre too much too early in your writing career can be bad. This isn't genre teaching. The word genre implies that other genres exist. Like me, these students may be confused when it comes time to write in different genres because they will relate all writing to the genre they studied the most. They also may be scared to write again if they think that it will take that much research to write.

11 September - 17 September: Critical examination of L2 writing process research

Key Points: This text is a reflection on many other studies concerning L2 writing. Instead of conducting tests to gather data like Sasaki did in the other reading above, these researchers gathered their data by looking at other research projects. There aim was to determine how effective L2 research has been up until this point. And, their conclusion is that L2 language researchers have a lot of work ahead of them.

This reading did a very good job of detailing all the ways that previous research projects have attempted to extract data from L2 writers. However, the authors also did a good job of explaining how each method has its flaws. For example, Sasaki had test subjects watch themselves writing on video and they recalled what they were thinking while they wrote. The authors in this study bring up the point that the test subjects can not be 100% accurate as the recall their own thoughts. Given the situation, the test subjects may be idealizing what they were thinking in order to comply with what they feel is the proper way to think while writing.

The article continues on to question many methods of gathering data in L2 language research. One method that interested me was the dual-task test. This is where researchers distract writers with unrelated input, such as a series of random numbers, while the test subjects write. This sounded quite strange to me until later it was explained that this method was used to determine the amount of cognitive resources test subjects needed while writing. The random input would use up brain power and if brain power was necessary for writing than the writing would be affected. If test subjects were not distracted than that meant that they were not using all of their cognitive resources to write.

My interaction with the article: This reading was very difficult to understand at times. The more difficult it was to understand the more I realized that conducting this type of research is not easy. I felt good about myself when the authors raised some of the doubts that I had while I was reading about Sasaki's research. My doubts just scratched the surface, though. These authors took so many factors into consideration as they criticized the research techniques that I felt bad for the researchers in the previous studies. I wonder if this criticism made any researchers angry.

In my classroom I could take some of what I learned about the complexities of writing in L2. But, this article has left me with some unanswered questions. I don't know if I'm confident enough to take anything I 've read about in this article into the classroom.

One that I'm particularly curious about is what language are the L2 writers thinking in? Perhaps this question was answered in one of the sections in the article that I had trouble understanding. I wondered if it would help L2 writers to write their first draft in L1 and then translate that the best they could. This may seem like a silly question, but I've never written in L2.

I also wonder what differences can be found between typing and writing be hand. As far as I could tell, this article didn't address that.

11 September - 17 September: Building an empirically based model of EFL learner's writing processes – M. Sasaki

Key Points: This text is about Miyuki Sasaki's research project on L2 writing compared three groups of L2 writers:

1. expert writers (12)
2. novice writers (22)
3. the same novice writers after 12 weeks of instruction in writing process

Sasaki tested 8 hypotheses that she made with the help of a preliminary pilot study. The hypotheses were mostly concerned with planning (global planning and local planning), stopped to reread and revise, and the effects of writing process instruction on the novice writers.

Gathering data to test these hypotheses was a quite a challenge. Previous studies asked test subjects to think out loud while they wrote. Sasaki felt that this method was ineffective because it interfered with the students writing process so she used a technique in which the test subjects watched themselves on video. While watching, they told the researcher what they were thinking at each point in the video.

In this study the test subjects wrote an argumentative essay. One topic was used for the first novice test and a second topic was used for the test given after instruction. The topics of the two test were similar, but they could not be the same.

The text details exactly how the data was gathered. The three sources of data were the texts that the test subjects wrote, observations made while watching the subjects write and the recollections the subjects gave after they wrote. Sasaki evaluated the subjects' text using Jacob's English Composition Profile. From observation she could determine how long it took to write the texts and how long the subjects spent rereading and revising.

Overall, Sasaki concluded form the research project that planning in writing is important, especially global planning.

My interaction with the article: This text was a great introduction into the practice of L2 writing research. Every step of the process was detailed well. Even though I had trouble understanding the coding and mathematical sections of this text, I could get a good idea of how this type of research is done and I found it very interesting.

It would be very easy for me to take what I learned from Sasaki's research into my own classroom. Planning is key. Although, I have a feeling that teaching global planning to novice writers is not that simple. I wondered if the instruction that the novice writers received during the course of this research project included lessons on global planning. If it had, wouldn't that mean different results or is it impossible to simply teach global planning to novice writers.

While reading this text I couldn't help but doubt the methods used. The entire text was an explanation for why the research project was carried out in the way that it was, but I still had many unanswered questions. For example, why couldn't the test subjects use dictionaries? Wouldn't they use them in a real life situation? Why did Sasaki have to pay the novice test subjects and not the expert test subjects? The experts had experience reading about and possibly carrying out such research projects. Could their background knowledge affect the results? And so on. However, upon completing the article I felt satisfied. Even though I had many unanswered questions, I realized that Sasaki did as well. This was not the research project to end all research projects. I was a step in the right direction.

Furthermore, I learned that before a researcher attempts to begin their own study, they must read all the research pertaining to what they intend to prove. Sasaki listed many experiments that pertained to her research project. The research projects do not happen in a vacuum, they are connected to a long line of research.

Week 1: How to Research Second Language Writing

Key Points: This text looks at how to research ESL writing. There are two basic components in the research of second language writing. The first is the actual text that the second language writer writes and the other component is the process that the writer goes through in order to produce the text.

There are eight methods to researching second language writing outlined in this text. They are surveys, interviews, meta-analysis, classroom observation, text analysis and process research. Good research triangulates, which is to use as many of these methods as possible to insure a large sample of data.

Researcher may also look at the material that inspired the texts, such as text books, courses and teacher input.

Looking at the texts produced by ESL writers can help researchers learn about common problems and possible solutions to those problems. The problems being common mistakes in the texts. Looking at the text can also provide some insight in the the effects of methods used to teach ESL.

There are many complexities when evaluating a text. For instance, how does a researcher count mistakes in the texts. A researcher must also determine if some mistakes are worse than others. There are many aspects of text evaluation that do not lend themselves well to calculation.

Examining the process of writing is also complex and produces difficult to work with data. The two most common methods for collecting data when looking at the process are interview and observation. One particular method combines interview and observation by asking the test subject to watch a video of themselves writing and provide a narrative to what they are thinking at each step in the writing process.

The final part of the text gives the reader an example research project that makes use of a control group in order to observe the effects of teaching self modification in writing.

My interaction with the article: Now, I want to see results. I have read how about how research in writing is accomplished, but I haven't read much about the results that these studies produce. It is like reading about the science behind how a camera works but not yet seeing the pictures a camera takes.

Understanding the process and methods behind the research will enrich my reading of research results. I see a lot of reading about research projects and the results they produce in my future.

I'm guessing that this article will affect my teaching. In order to improve as a teacher I must be aware of these studies and the journals that they are in. To implement what I read into my classroom, I must understand exactly how the tests gathered data. If I want to see the same results in my classroom that I read about in the study than I must replicate the environment and the procedures that are used to make the results.

As for my reaction to the methods, procedures, and research outlined in the text, I am overwhelmed by the complexity in researching writing. Any attempt to simplify or streamline the process in order to get easier to examine data will not give the researcher enough information to come to any conclusions. If I were asked to produce results in a writing research project before I had read this text, I would have tried to make the test as specific as possible. I would have done things like counted how many times writers left out an article in their writing or timed them to get easy to work with data. I now know that that data means very little on its own and need to be triangulated with many methods of acquiring data.

Week 1: Globalization of Scholarships: Studying Chinese Scholars Writing for International Publication.

Key points: In this text the reader is lead through the process of conducting a long-term research project that looks at ESL writing. The research project looks at Chinese university students who are faced with writing in English as a side effect of globalization.

Globalization, for good or for bad, is forcing English upon international university students seeking to publish in academic journals. For many reasons students writing for publication must use the international lingua franca, English. For international students this means using English as an additional language, which in this text is referred to as EAL.

The study takes place in two locations, each of which provide unique insight into the effects of globalization because of their unique circumstances. Hong Kong was under English rule at the time of this study and is the first location in this study. Mainland China is the second location and is special because it is new to the international scene.

The study took place because of the upcoming hand over of Hong Kong back to China. This meant native English speaking professors were about to be replaced by Chinese speaking professors thereby making EAL an issue in Hong Kong universities. The researchers behind this study wanted to look at the way Chinese speaking scholars were writing for English publications. There were four main objectives for the study:

1. To investigate attitudes toward writing in EAL.
2. To look at problems specific to each field of study.
3. To look at interactions between the writers and the international community involved in research journals.
4. To see the effects EAL has on the content of their writing.

The text then proceeds to detail the methods used to conduct the research.

Finally, after learning about the steps that went into the project the reader learns the results of the project. The findings were:

1. Writing in EAL takes a great amount of effort.
2. Their papers are affected by their L1.
3. Each field has it own way of writing in EAL.
4. And, the point I found most interesting, Chinese students had a cynical attitude toward the gatekeepers of the academic journals.

My interaction with the article: This was my first time to read about researching in ESL. In the past, I used tests to do my own informal research. I didn't learn anything from the tests and now I'm beginning to understand why. I think all are curios as to what teaching methods work in their classroom and what methods do not. I'm curious about my classmate's experience with informal research in their classrooms.

I have many questions about the research project that weren't answered in the text.

1. Did the researchers speak Chinese and English?
2. How do language barriers affect research projects such as this?
3. Who are the people who do these types research projects? How do they make a living? What else do they do to make a living while they are conducting research? Doesn't the background information affect the results of the research?
4. The results and details of the survey must be really tedious to read and to check. Who job is it to do this? Do they ask the same background questions about the researchers personal details that I just did?

The most interesting part of the article was the end when we got to read the results of the research. One of the findings was that the Chinese authors of the academic papers were cynical toward the gatekeepers for the academic journals. I am wondering if it was the purpose of this research to bring this issue to their attention. It seems to me to be an important issue in globalization. Is this a well known problem? Is there anything being done counteract the bias against non-English speaking countries in a globalized world that choose English as its lingua fraca?

An Introduction

My college career started in community college, because I hadn't decided what I was going to be when I grew up and that was the default step to take after high school. After way too many credit hours and about four changes in major I settled on Music Education. Currently, I have a few private students and some part-time work at a hagwon as I continue my education. I'm teaching reading and writing to only one student. I am having him read two chapters a week of the Judy Blume book, Superfudge. Each week I write questions about subtext which require more than just short answers- this is the writing, and questions about idioms and vocabulary. I really enjoy the private tutoring, but I do not know yet if it will be enough to pay the bills so five years from now I see myself in a teaching position that will promise stability and sustainability. I'm hoping that while working achieving my masters I will gradually become more specific about the teaching position I desire.